THE NIGHT BEFORE CHRISTMAS PUZZLE Springbok 1975 vintage Santa illustration RARE

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Item: 204880991090

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Springbok:Springbok
Year:1975
Number of Pieces:1000 – 1999 Pieces
Based On The Work Of:Clement Clarke Moore
Color:Multi-Color
Theme:Fairytales
Material:Cardboard
Recommended Age Range:12 & Up
Gender:Boys & Girls
Country/Region of Manufacture:United States
Character Family:Christmas / Holidays

Check out our store for more great vintage, new, and used items! FOR SALE:A vintage puzzle featuring an illustration of a Christmas-defining poem 1975 SPRINGBOK « THE NIGHT BEFORE CHRISTMAS » 1000 PC. JIGSAW PUZZLE DETAILS:🎄✨A Holiday Classic Comes Alive!✨🎄Step into the whimsical world of Christmas magic with this rare and enchanting 1000-piece jigsaw puzzle from the iconic puzzle and board game brand Springbok Editions, a division of Hallmark Cards, Inc. Produced in 1975, this vintage masterpiece brings to life the beloved poem « A Visit from St. Nicholas », more commonly known as « The Night Before Christmas », by Clement Clarke Moore. As you piece together this 24″ x 30″ puzzle, you’ll be transported to a winter wonderland of nostalgic charm, where reindeer prance, snowflakes swirl, and the spirit of Christmas past comes alive. The beautiful illustration by A. Noel perfectly captures the essence of Moore’s timeless tale, which has been delighting readers for two centuries. With its intricate details and whimsical illustrations, this puzzle is sure to become a treasured holiday tradition for generations to come. This vintage puzzle is not only a testament to the artistry of Springbok’s design team but also a tangible connection to the rich cultural heritage of the holiday season. With its sturdy cardboard construction and vibrant colors, this puzzle has stood the test of time, awaiting its next completionist to rediscover its magic. Vintage, retired, and rare! * Piece count: 1000 * Size: 24 in. x 30 in. (60.96 x 76.2 cm) * Title: « T’was The Night Before Christmas » * Artist: A. Noel * Manufacturer: Springbok Editions (Hallmark Cards, Inc.) * Catalog Number: PZL5902 * Year: 1975 * Made In USA CONDITION:In good, pre-owned condition and complete. The box has some storage and age wear. There’s a few pieces of tape on the corners and some writing on the back of the box. Please see photos.To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out. THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK.*ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.* « Clement Clarke Moore (July 15, 1779 – July 10, 1863) was an American writer, scholar and real estate developer. He is best known as author of the Christmas poem « A Visit from St. Nicholas », which first named each of Santa Claus’s reindeer. Moore was Professor of Oriental and Greek Literature, as well as Divinity and Biblical Learning, at the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in New York City. The seminary was developed on land donated by Moore and it continues on this site at Ninth Avenue between 20th and 21st streets, in an area known as Chelsea Square. Moore gained considerable wealth by subdividing and developing other parts of his large inherited estate in what became known as the residential neighborhood of Chelsea. He also served for 44 years as a member of the board of trustees of Columbia College (later University),[1] and was a board member of the New York Society Library and the New York Institution for the Blind. « A Visit from St. Nicholas, » which later became widely known by its opening line, « ‘Twas the Night Before Christmas, » was first published anonymously in 1823. Moore publicly claimed authorship in 1837, and this was not disputed during his lifetime, but a rival claimant emerged later and scholars now debate the identity of the author, calling on textual and handwriting analysis as well as other historical sources. Early life Moore was born on July 15, 1779, in New York City at « Chelsea », his mother’s family estate. He was the son of Benjamin Moore (1748–1816) and Charity (née Clarke) Moore (1747–1838).[2] At the time of Clement’s birth Benjamin Moore was assistant rector of Trinity Church in Manhattan. He later became rector of Trinity and bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York, also serving as acting president of Kings College in 1775 and 1776 and president of the renamed Columbia College (now Columbia University) from 1801 to 1811.[3][4] Moore’s maternal grandfather was Major Thomas Clarke, an English officer who stayed in the colony after fighting in the French and Indian War. He owned the large Manhattan estate « Chelsea », then in the country north of the developed areas of the city. As a girl, Moore’s mother Charity Clarke wrote letters to her English cousins. Preserved at Columbia University, these show her disdain for the policies of the British monarchy and her growing sense of patriotism in pre-Revolutionary days. Moore’s grandmother Sarah Fish was a descendant of Elizabeth Fones and Joris Woolsey, one of the earlier settlers of Manhattan.[5] Moore’s parents inherited the Chelsea estate, and deeded it to him in 1813. He earned great wealth by subdividing and developing it in the 19th century.[6] Moore received a Bachelor of Arts from Columbia College as valedictorian of the class of 1798, and earned his Master’s degree there in 1801. Career One of Moore’s earliest known works was an anonymous pro-Federalist pamphlet published prior to the 1804 presidential election, attacking the religious and racial views of Thomas Jefferson (the incumbent president and Democratic-Republican candidate).[7] His polemic, titled in full « Observations upon Certain Passages in Mr. Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia, which Appear to Have a Tendency to Subvert Religion, and Establish a False Philosophy, » depicted Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia (1785) as an « instrument of infidelity » that « debases the negro to an order of creatures lower than those who have a fairer skin and thinner lips. »[8] In 1820, Moore helped Trinity Church organize a new parish church, St. Luke in the Fields, on Hudson Street.[9] He later gave 66 tracts of land – the apple orchard from his inherited Chelsea estate – to the Episcopal Diocese of New York to be the site of the General Theological Seminary.[10] Based likely on this donation, and on the publication of his Hebrew and English Lexicon in 1809,[11] Moore was appointed as professor of Biblical learning at the Seminary. He held this post until 1850.[10] After the seminary was built, Moore began the residential development of his Chelsea estate in the 1820s with the help of James N. Wells, dividing it into lots along Ninth Avenue and selling them to well-heeled New Yorkers.[9] Covenants in the deeds of sale created a planned neighborhood, specifying what could be built on the land as well as architectural details of the buildings.[12] Stables, manufacturing and commercial uses were forbidden in the development. Moore was appointed to the Columbia College board of trustees in 1813 and served until 1857.[13] He was clerk of the board from 1815 to 1850.[14] From 1840 to 1850, Moore also served as a board member of the New York Institution for the Blind at 34th Street and Ninth Avenue (now the New York Institute for Special Education). He published a collection of poems (1844). A Visit from St. Nicholas A rendering of the mansion house of the Chelsea estate by Moore’s daughter, Mary C. Ogden, made for the first color edition of A Visit from St. Nicholas (1855) Main article: A Visit from St. Nicholas This poem, « arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American, »[15] was first published anonymously in the Troy, New York Sentinel on December 23, 1823. It had been given to the paper’s editor by Sarah Sackett of Troy, who probably got it from Harriet Butler of Troy, a family friend of the Moores.[16][17] Anonymous or pseudonymous publication of poetry was customary at the time, but as the poem’s popularity grew so did curiosity about its author. In response to a query in 1829, Sentinel editor Orville Holley wrote that « We have been given to understand that the author … belongs by birth and residence to the city of New York, and that he is a gentleman of more merit as a scholar and a writer than many of more noisy pretensions. » (Italics his.)[18] In 1837 Moore was finally publicly identified as the author in journalist Charles Fenno Hoffman’s The New-York Book of Poetry, to which Moore had submitted several poems. In 1844, he included « Visit » in Poems, an anthology of his works.[19][20] His children, for whom he had originally written the piece, encouraged this publication. In 1855, Mary C. Moore Ogden, one of the Moores’ married daughters, painted « illuminations » to go with the first color edition of the poem. Authorship controversy Scholars have debated whether Moore was the author of this poem. Professor Donald Foster used textual content analysis and external evidence to argue that Moore could not have been the author.[21] Foster believes that Major Henry Livingston, Jr., a New Yorker with Dutch and Scottish roots, should be considered the chief candidate for authorship. This view was long espoused by the Livingston family. Livingston was distantly related to Moore’s wife.[21] In response to Foster’s claim, Stephen Nissenbaum, professor of history at the University of Massachusetts, wrote in 2001 that, based on his research, Moore was the author.[22] In his article, « There Arose Such a Clatter: Who Really Wrote ‘The Night before Christmas’? (And Why Does It Matter?) », Nissenbaum confirmed Moore’s authorship, « I believe he did, and I think I have marshaled an array of good evidence to prove [it] ».[23] Foster’s claim has also been countered by document dealer and historian Seth Kaller, who once owned one of Moore’s original manuscripts of the poem. Kaller has offered a point-by-point rebuttal of both Foster’s linguistic analysis and external findings, buttressed by the work of autograph expert James Lowe and Dr. Joe Nickell, author of Pen, Ink and Evidence.[24][25][26] There is no evidence that Livingston ever claimed authorship,[27] nor has any record ever been found of any printing of the poem with Livingston’s name attached to it. But, according to the original copy of the poem that was sent to The Sentinel, the names of Santa’s last two reindeer were Dunder and Blixem, instead of Donder (later Donner) and Blitzen, as printed. The changes in spelling are attributed to a printing error and/or correcting Moore’s spelling inaccuracies, as he did not speak Dutch.[28] In 2016, the matter was discussed by MacDonald P. Jackson, an emeritus professor of English literature at the University of Auckland, a fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand and an expert in authorship attribution using statistical techniques. He evaluated every argument using modern computational stylistics, including one never used before – statistical analysis of phonemes – and found, in his opinion, that in every test that Livingston was the more likely author.[29] Developing Chelsea Townhouses in Manhattan’s Chelsea neighborhood, most of which was originally part of Moore’s country estate Moore’s estate, named Chelsea, was on the west side of the island of Manhattan north of Greenwich Village. It was mostly open countryside before the 1820s.[9] It had been purchased in 1750 by his maternal grandfather Maj. Thomas Clarke, a retired British veteran of the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years’ War). Clarke named his house for the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London that served war veterans.[30] Moore’s parents inherited the estate in 1802, and several years later they deeded it to him. When the government of New York City decided on a street grid in Manhattan, based on the Commissioner’s Plan of 1811, the new Ninth Avenue was projected to go through the middle of the Chelsea estate. In 1818, Moore wrote and published a pamphlet calling on other « Proprietors of Real Estate » to oppose the manner in which the city was being developed. He thought it was a conspiracy designed to increase political patronage and appease the city’s working class, and argued that making landowners bear the costs of the streets laid through their property was « a tyranny no monarch in Europe would dare to exercise. » He also criticized the grid plan and the flattening of hills as ill-advised.[31] Despite his protests, Moore was already preparing to develop Chelsea, acquiring adjacent plots of land from relatives and neighbors until he owned everything from Eighth Avenue to the Hudson River between 19th and 24th Streets.[32] Together with carpenter-builder James N. Wells he divided the neighborhood into lots and marketed them to well-heeled New Yorkers. He donated a large block of land to the Episcopal diocese for construction of a seminary, giving them an apple orchard consisting of 66 tracts. Construction began in 1827 for the General Theological Seminary. Based on his knowledge of Hebrew, Moore was appointed as its first professor of Oriental Languages, serving until 1850. The seminary continues to operate on the same site, taking up most of the block between 20th and 21st streets and Ninth and Tenth avenues. Ten years later, Moore gave land at 20th Street and Ninth, east of the avenue, to the diocese for construction of St. Peter’s Episcopal Church.[9] The contemporary Manhattan neighborhood is known as Chelsea after his estate. Moore and slavery When Moore’s maternal grandmother died in 1802 she left four slaves to Moore’s parents. In his 1956 biography of Moore, Samuel W. Patterson asserted that the four remained with the Moore family and were not freed until the full abolition of slavery in New York in 1827,[33] and this assertion has been repeated in many other works. It is incorrect. Manumission records show that Benjamin and Charity Moore freed one of the four, Charles Smith, in 1803. In the 1810 U.S. Census Benjamin Moore is listed as having two slaves in his household, who according to manumission records were subsequently freed in 1811 and 1813 and did not have the same names as the inherited slaves. In the 1820 Census, Clement Moore’s first as a head of household, he is listed as having no slaves.[34] Personal life In 1813, Moore married Catherine Elizabeth Taylor, daughter of William Taylor and Elizabeth (née Van Cortlandt) Taylor. William Taylor was a New Jersey lawyer who had served as chief justice of Jamaica.[35] Elizabeth Van Cortlandt was a direct descendant of Stephanus Van Cortlandt, the first native-born mayor of New York City and first patroon of Van Cortlandt Manor, as well as the niece by marriage of Sir Edward Buller, 1st Baronet.[36] Together, Catherine and Clement Moore were the parents of nine children:[16] Margaret Elliot Moore (1815–1845), who married John Doughty Ogden (1804–1887), a grandson of U.S. Attorney Abraham Ogden and nephew of U.S. Representative David A. Ogden.[37] Charity Elizabeth Moore (1816–1830), who died young.[16] Benjamin Moore (1818–1886), who married Mary Elizabeth Sing (1820–1895), in 1842, and was the father of Clement Clarke Moore,[2] grandfather of Barrington Moore Sr., and great grandfather of Barrington Moore Jr. Mary Clarke Moore (1819–1893), who married John Doughty Ogden, her older sister’s widower, in 1848.[37] Clement Moore (1821–1889), who did not marry. Emily Moore (1822–1828), who also died young. William Taylor Moore (1823-1897), who married Lucretia Post in 1857 and, after her death in 1872, Katherine E. Robinson. He had no children.[38] Catharine Van Cortlandt Moore (1825–1890), who did not marry. Maria Theresa (« Terry ») Barrington Moore (1826–1900),[39] who did not marry.[40] After spending a month in their company in the resort town of Sharon Springs, New York, in 1848, the acerbic diarist George Templeton Strong described the unmarried Moore children as, « the sons a compound of imbecility deep beyond all fathoming, with an appetite for chambermaids beyond all precedent—the two Miss M’s very nice indeed. »[41] In the 1850s, Moore began summering in Newport, Rhode Island, together with his daughters Terry and Mary, and Mary’s family. He died on July 10, 1863, at his summer residence on Catherine Street in Newport, five days before his 84th birthday. His funeral was held in Trinity Church, Newport, where he had owned a pew. His body was returned to New York for burial in the cemetery at St. Luke in the Fields. On November 29, 1899, his body was reinterred in Trinity Church Cemetery in New York.[42] Legacy and honors Clement Clarke Moore Park In 1911, the Church of the Intercession in Manhattan started a service on the Sunday before Christmas that included a reading of the poem followed by a procession to Moore’s tomb at Trinity Church Cemetery on the Sunday before Christmas. This continues until this day.[43][44] Clement Clarke Moore Park, located at 10th Avenue and 22nd Street in Chelsea, is named after Moore. A playground opened in the park November 22, 1968, and was named for Moore by local law the following year. In 1995 it was fully renovated, and new trees were added. Local residents gather annually there on the last Sunday of Advent for a reading of « Twas the Night Before Christmas ».[45] PS13 in Elmhurst, Queens, is named after Clement C. Moore. » (wikipedia.org) « A Visit from St. Nicholas, more commonly known as The Night Before Christmas and ‘Twas the Night Before Christmas from its first line, is a poem first published anonymously under the title Account of a Visit from St. Nicholas in 1823 and later attributed to Clement Clarke Moore, who claimed authorship in 1837. The poem has been called « arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American »[1] and is largely responsible for some of the conceptions of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today. It has had a massive effect on the history of Christmas gift-giving. Before the poem gained wide popularity, American ideas had varied considerably about Saint Nicholas and other Christmastide visitors. A Visit from St. Nicholas eventually was set to music and has been recorded by many artists…. Plot On the night of Christmas Eve, a family is settling down to sleep when the father is disturbed by noises on their lawn. Looking out the window, he sees Santa Claus (Saint Nicholas) in a sleigh pulled by eight reindeer. After landing his sleigh on the roof, Santa enters the house by sliding down the chimney. He carries a sack of toys, and the father watches his visitor deliver presents and fill the stockings hanging by the fireplace, and laughs to himself. They share a conspiratorial moment before Santa bounds up the chimney again. As he flies away, Santa calls out « Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night. » Literary history Clement Clarke Moore, the author of A Visit from St. Nicholas The original publication of Account of a Visit from St. Nicholas in the Troy Sentinel, 23 December 1823 The authorship of A Visit is credited to Clement Clarke Moore who is said to have composed it on a snowy winter’s day during a shopping trip on a sleigh. His inspiration for the character of Saint Nicholas was a local Dutch handyman as well as the historic Saint Nicholas. Moore originated many of the features that are still associated with Santa Claus today while borrowing other aspects, such as the use of reindeer.[2] The poem was first published anonymously in the Troy, New York Sentinel on 23 December 1823, having been sent there by a friend of Moore,[1] and was reprinted frequently thereafter with no name attached. It was first attributed in print to Moore in 1837. Moore himself acknowledged authorship when he included it in his own book of poems in 1844. By then, the original publisher and at least seven others had already acknowledged his authorship.[3][4] Moore had a reputation as an erudite professor and had not wished at first to be connected with the unscholarly verse. He included it in the anthology at the insistence of his children, for whom he had originally written the piece.[3] Moore’s conception of Saint Nicholas was borrowed from his friend Washington Irving, but Moore portrayed his « jolly old elf » as arriving on Christmas Eve rather than Christmas Day. At the time that Moore wrote the poem, Christmas Day was overtaking New Year’s Day as the preferred genteel family holiday of the season, but some Protestants viewed Christmas as the result of « Catholic ignorance and deception »[1] and still had reservations. By having Saint Nicholas arrive the night before, Moore « deftly shifted the focus away from Christmas Day with its still-problematic religious associations ». As a result, « New Yorkers embraced Moore’s child-centered version of Christmas as if they had been doing it all their lives. »[1] In An American Anthology, 1787–1900, editor Edmund Clarence Stedman reprinted the Moore version of the poem, including the Dutch spelling of “Donder” and German spelling of « Blitzen » that he adopted, rather than the version from 1823 « Dunder and Blixem » that is more similar to the old Dutch “Donder en Blixem” that translates to « Thunder and Lightning ».[5] Authorship controversy Moore’s connection with the poem has been questioned by Professor Donald Foster,[6] who used textual content analysis and external evidence to argue that Moore could not have been the author.[7] Foster believes that Major Henry Livingston Jr., a New Yorker with Dutch and Scottish roots, should be considered the chief candidate for authorship, a view long espoused by the Livingston family. Livingston was distantly related to Moore’s wife.[7] Foster’s claim, however, has been countered by document dealer and historian Seth Kaller, who once owned one of Moore’s original manuscripts of the poem. Kaller has offered a point-by-point rebuttal of both Foster’s linguistic analysis and external findings, buttressed by the work of autograph expert James Lowe and Dr. Joe Nickell, author of Pen, Ink and Evidence.[3][8][9] Evidence in favor of Moore On January 20, 1829, Troy editor Orville L. Holley alluded to the author of the Christmas poem, using terms that accurately described Moore as a native and current resident of New York City, and as « a gentleman of more merit as a scholar and a writer than many of more noisy pretensions ».[10] In December 1833, a diary entry by Francis P. Lee, a student at General Theological Seminary when Moore taught there, referred to a holiday figure of St. Nicholas as being « robed in fur, and dressed according to the description of Prof. Moore in his poem ».[11] Four poems including A Visit from St. Nicholas appeared under Moore’s name in The New-York Book of Poetry, edited by Charles Fenno Hoffman (New York: George Dearborn, 1837). The Christmas poem appears on pp. 217–19, credited to « Clement C. Moore ». Moore stated in a letter to the editor of the New York American (published on March 1, 1844) that he « gave the publisher » of The New-York Book of Poetry « several pieces, among which was the ‘Visit from St. Nicholas.' » Admitting that he wrote it « not for publication, but to amuse my children, » Moore claimed the Christmas poem in this 1844 letter as his « literary property, however small the intrinsic value of that property may be ». A Visit from St. Nicholas appears on pp. 124–27 in Moore’s volume of collected Poems (New York: Bartlett and Welford, 1844). Before 1844, the poem was included in two 1840 anthologies: attributed to « Clement C. Moore » in Selections from The American Poets, edited by William Cullen Bryant (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1840), pp. 285–86; and to « C. C. Moore » in the first volume of The Poets of America, edited by John Keese (New York: S. Colman, 1840), pp. 102–04. The New-York Historical Society has a later manuscript of the poem in Moore’s handwriting, forwarded by T. W. C. Moore along with a cover letter dated March 15, 1862 giving circumstances of the poem’s original composition and transmission after a personal « interview » with Clement C. Moore.[12] After A Visit from St. Nicholas appeared under Moore’s name in the 1837 New-York Book of Poetry, newspaper printings of the poem often credited Moore as the author. For example, the poem is credited to « Professor Moore » in the 25 December 1837 Pennsylvania Inquirer and Daily Courier. Although Moore did not authorize the earliest publication of the poem in the Troy Sentinel, he had close ties to Troy through the Protestant Episcopal Church that could explain how it got there. Harriet Butler of Troy, New York (daughter of the Rev. David Butler) who allegedly showed the poem to Sentinel editor Orville L. Holley, was a family friend of Moore’s and possibly a distant relative.[13] A letter to Moore from the publisher Norman Tuttle states, « I understand from Mr. Holley that he received it from Mrs. Sackett, the wife of Mr. Daniel Sackett who was then a merchant in this city ».[14] The reported involvement of two women, Harriet Butler and Sarah Sackett, as intermediaries is consistent with the 1862 account of the poem’s earliest transmission in which T. W. C. Moore describes two stages of copying, first « by a relative of Dr Moores in her Album » and second, « by a friend of hers, from Troy ».[15] Moore preferred to be known for his more scholarly works, but allowed the poem to be included in his anthology in 1844 at the request of his children. By that time, the original publisher and at least seven others had already acknowledged his authorship. Livingston family lore gives credit to their forebear rather than Moore, but there is no proof that Livingston himself ever claimed authorship,[16] nor has any record ever been found of any printing of the poem with Livingston’s name attached to it, despite more than 40 years of searches.[citation needed] Evidence in favor of Livingston This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: « A Visit from St. Nicholas » – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Advocates for Livingston’s authorship argue that Moore « tried at first to disavow » the poem.[17] They also posit that Moore falsely claimed to have translated a book.[18] Document dealer and historian Seth Kaller has challenged both claims. Kaller examined the book in question, A Complete Treatise on Merinos and Other Sheep, as well as many letters signed by Moore, and found that the « signature » was not penned by Moore, and thus provides no evidence that Moore made any plagiaristic claim. Kaller’s findings were confirmed by autograph expert James Lowe, by Dr. Joe Nickell, the author of Pen, Ink & Evidence, and by others. According to Kaller, Moore’s name was likely written on the book by a New-York Historical Society cataloger to indicate that it had been a gift from Moore to the Society.[3][19][20] Some contend that Henry Livingston Jr., not Moore, was the author of the poem. Cover of a 1912 edition of the poem, illustrated by Jessie Willcox Smith The Librarian of Congress, Dr. James Billington, reads The Night Before Christmas to the Little Scholars, December 2010 The following points have been advanced in order to credit the poem to Major Henry Livingston Jr.: Livingston also wrote poetry primarily using an anapaestic metrical scheme, and it is claimed that some of the phraseology of A Visit is consistent with other poems by Livingston, and that Livingston’s poetry is more optimistic than Moore’s poetry published in his own name. But Stephen Nissenbaum argues in his Battle for Christmas that the poem could have been a social satire of the Victorianization of Christmas. Furthermore, Kaller claims that Foster cherry-picked only the poems that fit his thesis and that many of Moore’s unpublished works have a tenor, phraseology, and meter similar to A Visit. Moore had even written a letter titled « From Saint Nicholas » that may have predated 1823. Foster also contends that Moore hated tobacco and would, therefore, never have depicted Saint Nicholas with a pipe. However, Kaller notes, the source of evidence for Moore’s supposed disapproval of tobacco is The Wine Drinker, another poem by him. In actuality, that verse contradicts such a claim. Moore’s The Wine Drinker criticizes self-righteous, hypocritical advocates of temperance who secretly indulge in the substances which they publicly oppose, and supports the social use of tobacco in moderation (as well as wine, and even opium, which was more acceptable in his day than it is now). Foster also asserts that Livingston’s mother was Dutch, which accounts for the references to the Dutch Sinteklaes tradition and the use of the Dutch names « Dunder and Blixem ». Against this claim, it is suggested by Kaller that Moore – a friend of writer Washington Irving and member of the same literary society – may have acquired some of his knowledge of New York Dutch traditions from Irving. Irving had written A History of New York in 1809 under the name of « Dietrich Knickerbocker ». It includes several references to legends of Saint Nicholas, including the following that bears a close relationship to the poem: And the sage Oloffe dreamed a dream,—and lo, the good St. Nicholas came riding over the tops of the trees, in that self-same wagon wherein he brings his yearly presents to children, and he descended hard by where the heroes of Communipaw had made their late repast. And he lit his pipe by the fire, and sat himself down and smoked; and as he smoked, the smoke from his pipe ascended into the air and spread like a cloud overhead. And Oloffe bethought him, and he hastened and climbed up to the top of one of the tallest trees, and saw that the smoke spread over a great extent of country; and as he considered it more attentively, he fancied that the great volume of smoke assumed a variety of marvelous forms, where in dim obscurity he saw shadowed out palaces and domes and lofty spires, all of which lasted but a moment, and then faded away, until the whole rolled off, and nothing but the green woods were left. And when St. Nicholas had smoked his pipe, he twisted it in his hatband, and laying his finger beside his nose, gave the astonished Van Kortlandt a very significant look; then, mounting his wagon, he returned over the tree-tops and disappeared. — Washington Irving, A History of New York[21] MacDonald P. Jackson, Emeritus Professor of English at the University of Auckland, New Zealand and a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand, has spent his entire academic career analyzing authorship attribution. He has written a book titled Who Wrote « The Night Before Christmas »?: Analyzing the Clement Clarke Moore Vs. Henry Livingston Question,[22] published in 2016, in which he evaluates the opposing arguments and, for the first time, uses the author-attribution techniques of modern computational stylistics to examine the long-standing controversy. Jackson employs a range of tests and introduces a new one, statistical analysis of phonemes; he concludes that Livingston is the true author of the classic work. Musical adaptations Parts of the poem have been set to music numerous times, including a bowdlerized version (that omitted several verses such as « The moon on the breast of the new fallen snow … etc. ». and rewrote and replaced many others such as « the prancing and pawing of each little hoof » with « the clattering noise of each galloping hoof »), by the American composer Ken Darby (1909-1992),[23][24] whose version was recorded by Fred Waring and the Pennsylvanians three separate times; in 1942,[25][26] 1955,[27] and 1963.[23] The latter 1963 stereo recording for Capitol Records became the most familiar of the poem’s musical adaptations.[28] Christmas song-writing specialist Johnny Marks also composed a short version in 1952, titled « The Night Before Christmas Song », which has been recorded multiple times,[29] and was used in the soundtrack for the 1964 TV special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, sung by Burl Ives.[30] It was also arranged for choir by Lee Kjelson and Margaret Shelley Vance.[31] The poem was also set to music by British child composer Alma Deutscher (b. 2005).[32] In 1953, Perry Como recorded a recitation of the poem for RCA Victor with background music arranged and conducted by Mitchell Ayres. Louis Armstrong recited the poem in a March 1971 recording made only four months before his death.[33][34] It was recorded at his home in Corona, Queens and released as 45rpm by Continental Records.[35] The first completely musical rendition, that used the text of the poem in its entirety without material additions or alterations, was the cantata « A Visit from St. Nicholas » composed by Lucian W. Dressel in 1992 and first performed by the Webster University Orchestra, SATB Soloists, and Chorus.[36] More recent performances of the cantata have been performed by regional orchestras and choruses in Missouri, Illinois and Colorado.[37] Original copies Copy of the poem hand-written by Clement Clarke Moore Four hand-written copies of the poem are known to exist and three are in museums, including the New-York Historical Society library.[38] The fourth copy, written out and signed by Clement Clarke Moore as a gift to a friend in 1860, was sold by one private collector to another in December 2006. It was purchased for $280,000 by an unnamed « chief executive officer of a media company » who resides in New York City, according to Dallas, Texas-based Heritage Auctions which brokered the private sale.[39] In popular culture The poem is read or recited in numerous Christmas films, including National Lampoon’s Christmas Vacation (1989), The Santa Clause (1994), Reindeer Games (2000), and Falling For Christmas (2016).[40] It also inspired the 2001 film ‘Twas the Night and two television specials called ‘Twas the Night Before Christmas made in 1974 and 1977 respectively. » (wikipedia.org) « In traditional festive legend and popular culture, Santa Claus’s reindeer are said to pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The number of reindeer characters, and the names given to them (if any) vary in different versions, but those frequently cited in the United States are the eight listed in Clement Clarke Moore’s 1823 poem A Visit from St. Nicholas, the work that is probably responsible for the reindeer becoming popularly known:[1] Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donner (variously spelled Dunder and Donder) and Blitzen (variously spelled Blixen and Blixem).[note 1][3][4] The popularity of Robert L. May’s 1939 storybook Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and the 1949 Christmas song « Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer » has resulted in Rudolph often being included as the ninth character. Many other variations in reindeer names and number have appeared in fiction, music, film and TV…. Origins and history Single reindeer Illustration to the first verse of « Old Santeclaus with Much Delight », 1821 The first reference to Santa’s sleigh being pulled by a reindeer appears in Old Santeclaus with Much Delight, an 1821 illustrated children’s poem published in New York.[5][6] The names of the author and the illustrator are not known.[6] The poem, with eight colored lithographic illustrations, was published by William B. Gilley as a small paperback book entitled The Children’s Friend: A New-Year’s Present, to the Little Ones from Five to Twelve.[7] The illustration to the first verse features a sleigh with a sign saying « REWARDS » being pulled by an unnamed single reindeer. Eight reindeer The 1823 poem by Clement C. Moore, A Visit from St. Nicholas (also known as ‘Twas the Night Before Christmas), is largely credited for the modern Christmas lore that includes eight named reindeer.[8] The eight reindeer, as they appeared in the first publication of Account of a Visit from St. Nicholas in 1823. The poem was first published in the Sentinel of Troy, New York on 23 December 1823. All eight reindeer were named, the first six being Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet and Cupid, and the final two « Dunder » and « Blixem » (meaning thunder and lightning in colloquial New York Dutch).[9] The relevant part of the poem reads: More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted, and call’d them by name: « Now! Dasher, now! Dancer, now! Prancer, and Vixen, « On! Comet, on! Cupid, on! Dunder and Blixem; « To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall! « Now dash away! dash away! dash away all! » The eight reindeer, as they appeared in a handwritten manuscript of « A Visit From St. Nicholas » by Clement C. Moore from the 1860s. Moore altered the names of the last two reindeer several times;[9] in an early 1860s version of the poem, written as a gift to a friend, they are named « Donder » and « Blitzen » (with revised punctuation and underlined reindeer names). The relevant part reads: More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name; « Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen! To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall! Now dash away! dash away! dash away all! » As printed in An American Anthology, 1787–1900, 6th impression between 1900 and 1909. When Edmund Clarence Stedman collected the poem in his An American Anthology, 1787–1900, he also used « Donder » and « Blitzen », italicising the names.[10] The modern German spelling of « Donner » came into use only in the early twentieth-century, well after Moore’s death.[9] L. Frank Baum’s ten reindeer L. Frank Baum’s story The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus (1902) includes a list of ten reindeer, none of which match those in A Visit from St. Nicholas. Santa’s principal reindeer are Flossie and Glossie, and he gathers others named Racer and Pacer, Reckless and Speckless, Fearless and Peerless, and Ready and Steady.[11] Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer Main article: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer Rudolph’s story was originally written in verse by Robert L. May for the Montgomery Ward chain of department stores in 1939, and published as a book to be given to children in the store at Christmas time.[12] Appearances in popular media Miracle on 34th Street (1947) features the eight reindeer from A Visit from St. Nicholas. « Run Rudolph Run » (1958), recorded by Chuck Berry, is a popular Christmas-rock song about Rudolph.[13] Prancer (1989) tells of a young girl who finds an injured reindeer. Let’s Go Dancing With Santa is a song by KC & The Sunshine Band featuring Santa and his reindeer. » (wikipedia.org) « Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25[a] as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world.[2][3][4] A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is preceded by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night.[5] Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries,[6][7][8] is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians,[9] as well as culturally by many non-Christians,[1][10] and forms an integral part of the holiday season organized around it. The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies.[11] When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds who then spread the word.[12] There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus’ birth and in the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25.[b][13][14][15] This corresponds to the traditional date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar.[16] It is exactly nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, believing that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity, rather than knowing Jesus’ exact birth date, is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.[17][18][19] The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins.[20] Popular modern customs of the holiday include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; church services; a special meal; and the display of various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore.[21] Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world…. Etymology The English word « Christmas » is a shortened form of « Christ’s Mass ». The word is recorded as Crīstesmæsse in 1038 and Cristes-messe in 1131.[22] Crīst (genitive Crīstes) is from Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ), « Messiah », meaning « anointed »;[23][24] and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist.[25] The form Christenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal.[26] The term derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, meaning « Christian mass ».[27] Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός) (« Christ »), although some style guides discourage its use.[28] This abbreviation has precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where « Χρ̄ » is an abbreviation for Χριστός).[27] Other names In addition to « Christmas », the holiday has had various other English names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as « midwinter »,[29][30] or, more rarely, as Nātiuiteð (from Latin nātīvitās below).[29][31] « Nativity », meaning « birth », is from Latin nātīvitās.[32] In Old English, Gēola (Yule) referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas.[33] « Noel » (also « Nowel » or « Nowell », as in « The First Nowell ») entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning « birth (day) ».[34] Nativity Main article: Nativity of Jesus The gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary. In the book of Luke, Joseph and Mary traveled from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census, and Jesus was born there and placed in a manger.[35] Angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. The book of Matthew adds that the magi followed a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews. King Herod ordered the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family fled to Egypt and later returned to Nazareth.[36] History See also: Date of birth of Jesus Eastern Orthodox icon of the birth of Christ by Saint Andrei Rublev, 15th century Nativity of Christ, medieval illustration from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg (12th century) Adoration of the Shepherds (1622) by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of Jesus The nativity sequences included in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke prompted early Christian writers to suggest various dates for the anniversary.[37] Although no date is indicated in the gospels, early Christians connected Jesus to the Sun through the use of such phrases as « Sun of righteousness. »[37][38] The Romans marked the winter solstice on December 25.[16] The first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome on December 25, AD 336.[39] In the 3rd century, the date of the nativity was the subject of great interest. Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote: There are those who have determined not only the year of our Lord’s birth, but also the day; and they say that it took place in the 28th year of Augustus, and in the 25th day of [the Egyptian month] Pachon [May 20] … Further, others say that He was born on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi [April 20 or 21].[40] Various factors contributed to the selection of December 25 as a date of celebration: it was the date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar and it was nine months after March 25, the date of the vernal equinox and a date linked to the conception of Jesus (celebrated as the Feast of the Annunciation).[41] Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century. After this controversy ran its course, the prominence of the holiday declined for a few centuries. The feast regained prominence after 800 when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day. In Puritan England, Christmas was banned, with Puritans considering it a Catholic invention and also associating the day with drunkenness and other misbehaviour.[42] It was restored as a legal holiday in England in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, but it remained disreputable in the minds of some.[43] In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services became widespread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor,[44] along with Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving),[44] or Father Christmas (for Dickens).[45] Introduction At the time of the 2nd century, the « earliest church records » indicate that « Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord », an « observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers. »[46] Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian,[22] the Chronograph of 354 records that a Christmas celebration took place in Rome eight days before the calends of January.[47] This section was written in AD 336, during the brief pontificate of Pope Mark.[48] In the East, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6.[49][50] This holiday was not primarily about the nativity, but rather the baptism of Jesus.[51] Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century,[50] probably in 388, and in Alexandria in the following century.[52] Calculation hypothesis Further information: Chronology of Jesus Mosaic in Mausoleum M in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, interpreted by some as Jesus represented as Christus Sol (Christ the Sun).[53] The calculation hypothesis suggests that an earlier holiday, the Annunciation, held on March 25 became associated with the Incarnation.[54] Christmas was then calculated as nine months later. The calculation hypothesis was proposed by French writer Louis Duchesne in 1889.[55][56] The Bible in Luke 1:26 records the annunciation to Mary to be at the time when Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist, was in her sixth month of pregnancy (cf. Nativity of Saint John the Baptist).[57][58] The ecclesiastical holiday was created in the seventh century and was assigned to be celebrated on March 25; this date is nine months before Christmas, in addition to being the traditional date of the equinox.[58] It is unrelated to the Quartodeciman, which had been forgotten by this time.[59] Early Christians celebrated the life of Jesus on a date considered equivalent to 14 Nisan (Passover) on the local calendar. Because Passover was held on the 14th of the month, this feast is referred to as the Quartodeciman. All the major events of Christ’s life, especially the passion, were celebrated on this date. In his letter to the Corinthians, Paul mentions Passover, presumably celebrated according to the local calendar in Corinth.[60] Tertullian (d. 220), who lived in Latin-speaking North Africa, gives the date of passion celebration as March 25.[61] The date of the passion was moved to Good Friday in 165 when Pope Soter created Easter by reassigning the Resurrection to a Sunday. According to the calculation hypothesis, the celebration of the Quartodeciman continued in some areas and the feast became associated with Incarnation.[62] The calculation hypothesis is considered academically to be « a thoroughly viable hypothesis », though not certain.[63] It was a traditional Jewish belief that great men were born and died on the same day, so lived a whole number of years, without fractions: Jesus was therefore considered to have been conceived on March 25, as he died on March 25, which was calculated to have coincided with 14 Nisan.[64] A passage in Commentary on the Prophet Daniel (204) by Hippolytus of Rome identifies December 25 as the date of the nativity. This passage is generally considered a late interpolation. But the manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.[65] In 221, Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160 – c. 240) gave March 25 as the day of creation and of the conception of Jesus in his universal history. This conclusion was based on solar symbolism, with March 25 the date of the equinox. As this implies a birth in December, it is sometimes claimed to be the earliest identification of December 25 as the nativity. However, Africanus was not such an influential writer that it is likely he determined the date of Christmas.[66] The treatise De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae, pseudepigraphically attributed to John Chrysostom and dating to the early fourth century,[67][68] also argued that Jesus was conceived and crucified on the same day of the year and calculated this as March 25.[69][70] This anonymous tract also states: « But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December … the eight before the calends of January [25 December] …, But they call it the ‘Birthday of the Unconquered’. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord…? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice. »[22] Solstice date hypothesis December 25 was considered the date of the winter solstice in the Roman calendar,[16][71] though actually it occurred on the 23rd or 24th at that time.[72] A late fourth-century sermon by Saint Augustine explains why this was a fitting day to celebrate Christ’s nativity: « Hence it is that He was born on the day which is the shortest in our earthly reckoning and from which subsequent days begin to increase in length. He, therefore, who bent low and lifted us up chose the shortest day, yet the one whence light begins to increase. »[73] Linking Jesus to the Sun was supported by various Biblical passages. Jesus was considered to be the « Sun of righteousness » prophesied by Malachi: « Unto you shall the sun of righteousness arise, and healing is in his wings. »[38] Such solar symbolism could support more than one date of birth. An anonymous work known as De Pascha Computus (243) linked the idea that creation began at the spring equinox, on March 25, with the conception or birth (the word nascor can mean either) of Jesus on March 28, the day of the creation of the sun in the Genesis account. One translation reads: « O the splendid and divine providence of the Lord, that on that day, the very day, on which the sun was made, March 28, a Wednesday, Christ should be born ».[22][74] In the 17th century, Isaac Newton, who, coincidentally, was born on December 25, argued that the date of Christmas may have been selected to correspond with the solstice.[75] Conversely, according to Steven Hijmans of the University of Alberta, « It is cosmic symbolism … which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the southern solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the northern solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception. »[76] History of religions hypothesis See also: Saturnalia The rival « History of Religions » hypothesis suggests that the Church selected December 25 date to appropriate festivities held by the Romans in honor of the Sun god Sol Invictus.[54] This cult was established by Aurelian in 274. An explicit expression of this theory appears in an annotation of uncertain date added to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote: It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries, the Christians also took part. Accordingly, when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day.[77] In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a « paganization » that debased the true church.[78] However, it has been also argued that, on the contrary, the Emperor Aurelian, who in 274 instituted the holiday of the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, did so partly as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date already important for Christians in Rome.[79] Hermann Usener[80] and others[22] proposed that the Christians chose this day because it was the Roman feast celebrating the birthday of Sol Invictus. Modern scholar S. E. Hijmans, however, states that « While they were aware that pagans called this day the ‘birthday’ of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas. »[76] Moreover, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed a festival of Sol Invictus on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.[81] In the judgement of the Church of England Liturgical Commission, the History of Religions hypothesis has been challenged[82] by a view based on an old tradition, according to which the date of Christmas was fixed at nine months after March 25, the date of the vernal equinox, on which the Annunciation was celebrated.[69] Adam C. English, Professor of Religion at Campbell University, writes:[46] We have evidence from the second century, less than fifty years after the close of the New Testament, that Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord. It is not true to say that the observance of the nativity was imposed on Christians hundreds of years later by imperial decree or by a magisterial church ruling. The observance sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers.[46] With regard to a December religious feast of the deified Sun (Sol), as distinct from a solstice feast of the birth (or rebirth) of the astronomical sun, Hijmans has commented that « while the winter solstice on or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas ».[83] « Thomas Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian’s dedication of a temple to the sun god in the Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the ‘Birthday of the Invincible Sun’ on December 25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect. »[84] The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the religious celebrations of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun and of the birthday of Jesus, stating that the hypothesis that December 25 was chosen for celebrating the birth of Jesus on the basis of the belief that his conception occurred on March 25 « potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian’s decree, which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and challenge ».[85] Relation to concurrent celebrations Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus’ birth, with some claiming that certain elements have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday’s inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages,[86] to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation.[87][88] The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as the Puritans and Jehovah’s Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical.[89][42][90] Prior to and through the early Christian centuries, winter festivals were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached.[91] Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries. The pre-Christian Germanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas.[92] In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat.[93][92] Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as « the Yule one » and « Yule father » in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as « Yule beings ».[94] On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.[95] In eastern Europe also, old pagan traditions were incorporated into Christmas celebrations, an example being the Koleda,[96] which was incorporated into the Christmas carol. Post-classical history The Nativity, from a 14th-century Missal; a liturgical book containing texts and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. But the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the « forty days of St. Martin » (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[86] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[86] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.[86] The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. The coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas of 800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten.[86] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[86] « Misrule »—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year’s Day, and there was special Christmas ale.[86] Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens.[97] Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.[97] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.[98] It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[99] Modern history 17th and 18th centuries Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas.[100] In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide.[101][102] Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, states that Martin Luther « inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America. »[103] Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.[104] However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the « trappings of popery » or the « rags of the Beast ».[42] In contrast, the established Anglican Church « pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints’ days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party. »[105] The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity.[98] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England’s Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[42][106] Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[42] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with « plow-boys » and « maidservants », old Father Christmas and carol singing.[107] During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ’s birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.[43] The Examination and Tryal of Old Father Christmas, (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, and Christmas was again freely celebrated in England.[43] Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant.[108] The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been « purged of all superstitious observation of days ».[109] Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday since time immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland.[110] Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin’s Almanack contained the lines: « Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no. »[111] The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated

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